Tag: astrophysics

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PULSAR SHOCKER—SCIENCE’S BIGGEST BLIND SPOT!

Why does Six-Sigma not apply to pulsar theories?

Pulsars have puzzled scientists for over 50 years, and many mysteries remain. Some wonder if these cosmic signals could actually be alien beacons rather than natural objects.

You’ve heard of neutron stars and their eerily precise lighthouse flashes of radio waves. But did you know the world’s leading experts openly admit they still don’t know how—or even why—pulsars pulse? Despite more than five decades of dedicated research since their discovery, fundamental aspects of the mechanisms that govern pulsars remain incompletely understood.

WHAT THEY WON’T TELL YOU

• 50 Years of “Mystery Science”
– Pulsars were discovered in 1967 by Jocelyn Bell Burnell.
– The first pulsars were named “LGM” for “Little Green Men”,
because they resembled deliberate intelligent signals from aliens.
– The discovery was kept a secret for two years, until a “natural” explanation could be found.
– Yet top reviews concede: “No consensus on how pulsars make coherent radio beams.”
– Even their heavyweight magnetosphere models are “pure speculation,” say the academics.

Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered Pulsars in 1967
Jocelyn Bell Burnell discovered Pulsars in 1967

• Energy “Conversion” Conundrum
– How does a spinning neutron star turn its spin into light and X-rays?
– Experts shrug: “We don’t know where particles get accelerated… or how.”

• Interior Secrets Locked Tight
– The neutron-star Equation of State? A “well-kept secret,” even on Wikipedia.
– We can’t recreate these ultra-dense conditions on Earth—so we’re flying blind.

THE BIG QUESTION SETI WON’T ASK

If we’re this stumped by “natural” objects, could some pulsars actually be artificial beacons—designed by a super-advanced Kardashev Type III civilization? Imagine harnessing a stars energy to craft perfect, long-range lighthouses! Isn’t this a concept that the Kardashev Scale proposes?

Yet SETI protocols dismiss the idea outright:
• They focus on faint, homely radio signals—never megastructures beaming across the Milky Way.
• They’ve never seriously tested whether pulsar “noise” could be cosmic Morse code.

WHAT IF SOME PULSARS ARE ETI LIGHTHOUSES?

– Perfect timing, colossal power output, pinpoint beams… sounds like engineered tech!
– A K-III society could be “pinging” planets for millennia, and we’ve assumed it’s just physics playing tricks.

CALLING ALL STAR HUNTERS

It’s time to break the dogma. We need to:
1. Re-examine pulsar data for hidden patterns or intentional modulation.
2. Expand SETI’s search to include high-power, pulsed signals.
3. Admit our ignorance—and embrace wild ideas to solve these cosmic riddles.

Until we dare to ask whether pulsars are aliens’ calling cards, we’ll remain stuck in the dark—waiting for E.T. to ring a bell we refused to check. Isn’t it time someone blew the whistle on astrophysics’ biggest oversight?

Scientists on the Limits of Pulsar Knowledge

Beyond the specific unsolved problems within subfields of pulsar research, there are numerous instances where scientists make overarching statements explicitly acknowledging the incomplete state of current knowledge regarding these enigmatic objects.

Several key publications and resources directly state the limitations in our understanding of pulsars:

Beskin, Chernov, Gwinn, & Tchekhovskoy (2015):

In their review “Radio Pulsars,” these authors plainly state, “Almost 50 years after radio pulsars were discovered in 1967, our understanding of these objects remains incomplete.” This is a clear and high-level admission of the persistent gaps in knowledge from experts summarizing the field.

Hankins, Rankin, & Eilek (2009):

The white paper “What is the Physics of Pulsar Radio Emission?” opens with the frank assessment: “Despite much careful theoretical and observational effort, the details of how these rapidly rotating neutron stars radiate are still a mystery.” While focused on radiation, this statement implies broader difficulties in understanding the core processes.

Contopoulos, Kalapotharakos, & Kazanas (2014):

In “A new standard pulsar magnetosphere,” the authors remark, “Though pulsars were discovered almost fifty years ago, they still remain mysterious stellar objects.” This general statement encapsulates the enduring enigmatic nature of pulsars.

NASA on PSR B0943+10:

When discussing the “puzzling pulsar” PSR B0943+10, a NASA resource notes that “astronomers… aren’t sure how the particles get stripped from the surface of the star and accelerated to high energies”. The observation of its inverse radio/X-ray pulsing “reignited debate,” indicating that any prior consensus on such emission behavior was either absent or fragile and that existing models were insufficient.

“Pulsar Electrodynamics: an unsolved problem”:

The very title of a research area or a specific paper can be telling. While there is a paper on this topic, the broader identification of “Pulsar Electrodynamics” as “an unsolved problem” is a direct admission of ongoing challenges. The source itself discusses unresolved issues like “charge starvation” and “current starvation” in electrodynamic models, implying these are areas not fully settled.

The Unknown Equation of State (EoS):

A “Well-Kept Secret”
A critical unknown is the Equation of State (EoS) of matter at these supranuclear densities. The EoS describes the relationship between pressure, density, and temperature, and it dictates the macroscopic properties of the neutron star, such as its radius for a given mass and its maximum possible mass.

Neutron star equation of state, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1387647310000564
Neutron star equation of state, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S1387647310000564

Multiple sources unequivocally state the current lack of knowledge. Wikipedia’s entry on Neutron Stars, often reflecting expert consensus, asserts: “The equation of state of neutron stars is not currently known.” The entry elaborates that this uncertainty arises because the extreme densities are impossible to replicate in terrestrial laboratories, and theoretical modeling must incorporate General Relativity as well as complex aspects of Quantum Chromodynamics (QCD), potential superconductivity, and superfluidity of nuclear matter. Understanding the EoS is described as a “major unsolved problem in fundamental physics.”

This sentiment is strongly echoed in the scientific literature. A 2017 review by Chamel et al., “The physics of the neutron star crust,” notes that while the physics of the outer crust is relatively better understood, “the structure of the matter in neutron star cores and in particular its equation of state remain the well-kept secret of neutron stars”. The inability to definitively determine the EoS means that fundamental parameters, such as the precise upper mass limit for neutron stars before they collapse into black holes (the Tolman-Oppenheimer-Volkoff limit), remain uncertain, with theoretical estimates varying.

SIX-SIGMA:

Scientific Theories: When a theory encounters contradictory evidence or fails to explain a new observation, it is not a “defect” in the scientific process. Instead, it signals that the theory may be incomplete, incorrect under certain conditions, or in need of refinement. Such discrepancies are essential for scientific progress, often leading to new hypotheses or even paradigm shifts. This mindset may be exactly what’s needed to advance our understanding of pulsars.

References:

Are Radio Pulsars Extraterrestrial Communication Beacons?
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/264785777_Are_Radio_Pulsars_Extraterrestrial_Communication_Beacons

Pulsar Positioning System: A quest for evidence of extraterrestrial engineering
https://arxiv.org/abs/1704.03316

A 4–8 GHz Galactic Center Search for Periodic Technosignatures
https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.3847/1538-3881/acccf0

‘Unlike anything we have seen before’: Astronomers discover mysterious object firing strange signals at Earth every 44 minutes, May 28, 2025
https://www.livescience.com/space/unlike-anything-we-have-seen-before-astronomers-discover-mysterious-object-firing-strange-signals-at-earth-every-44-minutes

Chameleon pulsar takes astronomers by surprise, 19 February 2013
https://observatoiredeparis.psl.eu/chameleon-pulsar-takes-astronomers-by-surprise.html

Black hole blazar changes direction and now points its jet towards Earth
An inexplicable change of course
https://ras.ac.uk/news-and-press/research-highlights/galaxy-changes-classification-jet-changes-direction

(FRINGE) Decoding the Message of the Pulsars: Intelligent Communication from the Galaxy
https://www.amazon.com/Decoding-Message-Pulsars-Intelligent-Communication/dp/1591430623

Beskin, V. S. (2018). Radio pulsars. Physics-Uspekhi, 61(7), 655–686.

Hankins, T. H., Rankin, J. M., & Eilek, J. A. (2009). What is the Physics of Pulsar Radio Emission? Astro2010: The Astronomy and Astrophysics Decadal Survey, Science White Papers, no. 120.

Contopoulos, I., Kalapotharakos, C., & Kazanas, D. (2014). A new standard pulsar magnetosphere. Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, 443(1), L45–L49.

NASA. (2013, October 23). NASA’s Chandra and XMM-Newton Find Puzzling Pulsar. NASA Missions.

Petri, J. (2019). Pulsar electrodynamics: an unsolved problem. Journal of Plasma Physics, 85(5), 15850501.

Chamel, N., Fantina, A. F., & Zdunik, J. L. (2017). The physics of the neutron star crust. In The Physics and Astrophysics of Neutron Stars (pp. 57-95). Springer, Cham.

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Galway Man’s Call to Nobel Laureate Sparks Reflection on Pulsars and the Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence

In 1985 I was living in Galway, on the west coast of Ireland. I regularly raided the local library in Augustine Street for reading material. It no longer looks like this, but I remember walking up the stairs on the left:

Old Galway Central Library, Augustine Street, from memory

The Mysteries of Pulsars Capture My Imagination

There, I discovered a book about pulsars. As I read, I was struck by the remarkable characteristics of these cosmic phenomena—they emitted incredibly regular radio pulses, seemingly ticking like celestial clocks. Something about their precise periodicity raised a suspicion in my mind: Could these signals be of artificial origin? The idea gnawed at me. It seemed almost too perfect, too synchronized, to be purely natural.

Antony Hewish in front of  4.5-acre array, image by Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge.

Delays and Doubts: The Scientific Community’s Caution

What puzzled me even more was the fact that the researchers who first detected pulsars waited nearly two years before publishing their findings. When they finally did, they explained the regular radio transmissions as the result of some natural astrophysical process—perhaps rapidly spinning neutron stars or some other exotic object. But I couldn’t shake the feeling that something was being hidden, or at least not fully explored. Why delay the publication? Why rush to explain away the strange signals with a natural cause, when they could just as easily be a message—or evidence—of intelligent life?

First Observation Of Pulsar, image by Cavendish Laboratory, University of Cambridge.

A Personal Mission: Reaching Out to a Nobel Laureate

I found myself unable to let go of the thought. I decided I had to try and get some answers directly from someone who knew the science firsthand—Professor Antony Hewish himself, the Nobel laureate who played a key role in the discovery of pulsars.

The walk to the phone booth on Eyre Square was not long—just a few minutes—but to me, it felt like a journey into the unknown. I passed by the familiar sights: the cobblestone streets, the bustling cafés, and the distant clang of the clock tower. The square was busy with people, their conversations and footsteps creating a constant hum. I could feel the cool breeze on my face, carrying the faint smell of brewing coffee from nearby cafés, mingling with the crisp air of a typical Irish day.

Pádraic Ó’ Conaire statue on Eyre Square, Galway

Making the Call: Asking the Expert About Artificial Origins

As I approached the square, I paused briefly to steady my breathing. I reached into my pocket, clutching the handful of Irish pound coins I had carefully gathered for this purpose. I looked at the phone booth—a small, glass-panelled box standing at the corner of the square, slightly worn but functional. Its faded paint and the faint smell of old metal reminded me of countless moments of waiting and hope.

I stepped inside, feeling the cool metal of the door handle against my hand. The interior was dimly lit, with the faint glow of the coin slot and dialing pad. I took a moment to collect myself. The hum of the city outside seemed to fade into the background as I lifted the receiver and inserted the coins one by one into the slot, hearing the satisfying clink as they dropped into place.

The phone was a rotary-style model, but it worked—reliable and straightforward. I stared at the dial pad, my fingers trembling slightly as I entered the number for the Cavendish Laboratory in Cambridge. The line was long-distance, and I had only a limited amount of coins. I whispered a quiet prayer that the call would go through.

The Interview

Finally, I heard the connection click. A calm, measured voice answered.

Antony Hewish on the phone (AI generated)

“Hello?”

“Professor Hewish?” I asked, trying to keep my voice steady.

“Yes, speaking,” came the reply.

I hesitated for a moment, my mind racing with questions. Then I blurted out, “I’m calling to congratulate you on the discovery of pulsars.”

There was a brief pause, and I could almost hear him smiling on the other end of the line.

He thanked me politely, then I took a deep breath and asked, “I find the subject absolutely fascinating, and I was wondering—are you absolutely certain that pulsars are not of artificial origin?”

He responded with quiet confidence, “Yes, I am certain.”

And then he proceeded to explain, his voice steady and reassuring:

“Pulsars are fascinating objects. They are highly magnetized, rapidly spinning neutron stars—remnants of massive stars that have gone supernova. As they rotate, their intense magnetic fields funnel particles toward their magnetic poles, which act like cosmic lighthouse beams. When these beams sweep past Earth, we detect them as highly regular radio pulses.”

Reflections Under the Galway Sky

I listened intently, my mind swirling with his explanations—ones I’d heard before, yet they only deepened my curiosity. I asked again, perhaps more insistently:

“And you are 100% sure that pulsars are not of artificial origin?”

Hewish chuckled softly on the line, “Yes, absolutely certain.”

I thanked him for his time, and before used up all my coins, I ended the call. Stepping back onto the street, I looked up at the grey, cloudy sky, pondering the vastness of space and the mysteries it still held. The conversation left me with a lingering question: could we someday truly find signs of intelligent life out there?

One Second of Error in 30 Million Years

The universe’s most precise timekeepers—the most stable pulsars—are so remarkably accurate that they would drift by only a single second over tens of millions of years. Their stability rivals—and in some respects even surpasses—that of our most advanced atomic clocks.

The most stable known millisecond pulsar, designated PSR J1713+0747, exemplifies this extraordinary precision. Its rotational period is so consistent that it would accumulate an error of just one second after approximately 30 million years.

When we talk about the superiority of pulsars as cosmic clocks, we’re referring to their ability to keep perfect time over millennia—far beyond the reach of any human-made clock. Engineers can build clocks that lose only one second in 300 billion years, but such devices are fragile, often breaking down within a few decades. Pulsars, on the other hand, can continue their steady ticking for billions of years, offering an unmatched cosmic standard of time.

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Cosmic Scouts: Michio Kaku on UFOs as Probes from Type III Civilizations

Physicist Michio Kaku has publicly discussed the theoretical capabilities of extraterrestrial civilizations, particularly in the context of Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena (UAPs or UFOs). He argues that if such objects are indeed spacecraft from non-human intelligences capable of interstellar or intergalactic travel, they would likely originate from a highly advanced civilization, potentially a Type III on the Kardashev scale, possessing the ability to manipulate space and time.

The Challenge of Cosmic Distances

Kaku emphasizes the immense distances separating stars and galaxies, which render travel by conventional means (like current human rocket technology) impractical for interstellar voyages, requiring tens of thousands of years to reach even the nearest stars. For intergalactic travel, the distances are millions of times greater.

Could UAPs be the scout spacecraft of a galactic civilization?

Kardashev Type III
UAPs: are they from Kardashev Type III civilizations?

To answer that, we must journey into the realm of theoretical physics and cosmic evolution.
Imagine beings who have mastered energies on a scale that dwarfs our planetary concerns. That is the domain of a Kardashev Type III civilization.

The Kardashev Scale (after Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev) classifies civilizations by their energy consumption:

  • A Type 0 civilization, like our own, derives its energy from dead plants and animals (oil, coal) and is still subject to the whims of nature. We are, in cosmic terms, infants.
  • Type I civilization has mastered planetary energy. They can control the weather, harness the power of their entire planet, and utilize all the sunlight that strikes its surface. Think of Buck Rogers.
  • Type II civilization has graduated to stellar power. They can consume the entire energy output of their parent star. Dyson spheres, theoretical megastructures that could encompass a star, are a hallmark of such a civilization. Star Trek’s Federation is beginning to approach this level.
  • Then, there’s Type III: a galactic civilization. They command the power of an entire galaxy, perhaps harnessing the energy of billions of stars, maybe even manipulating black holes. Think of “Star Wars” or the ancient builders in many science fiction sagas.

Intergalactic travel isn’t a matter of building a bigger rocket. To traverse millions of light-years in any reasonable timeframe, you must manipulate space-time itself—harnessing Planck-scale energies to open wormholes or drive a warp bubble.

Who could wield such power?

Type I powers a planet.
Type II powers a solar system.
Only a Type III civilization can treat a galaxy as its playground—warping, folding, or tunneling through space-time at will.

So, if these UFOs are indeed piloted by beings from another world, and if they demonstrate capabilities like instantaneous acceleration, right-angle turns at hypersonic speeds, and, crucially, the ability to traverse interstellar or even intergalactic distances, then we are not dealing with a civilization just a few centuries ahead of us. The sheer energy requirements and the physics involved point to something far grander.

Such beings would likely be the product of a Type III civilization. They would have long ago mastered the fundamental forces, unlocked secrets of space-time that we are only just beginning to ponder, and command energies that could light up (or extinguish) stars.

While we must always approach these UAP reports with scientific rigor and skepticism, it’s an intriguing thought experiment. If they are real, and not of this Earth, then the beings behind them are not just visitors from another star; they are potentially emissaries from a civilization so advanced, they are practically gods in their ability to manipulate the cosmos.

It opens up the tantalizing, and perhaps humbling, possibility that we are but a tiny part of a much larger, far more advanced, cosmic neighborhood. The universe, it seems, is far more fascinating than we ever imagined.

FACT CHECK

The above text aligns with Dr. Michio Kaku’s public statements on:

  1. The Kardashev Scale and Civilizational Classification
  2. Type III civilizations’ capacity for intergalactic travel
  3. The physics of space-time manipulation (Planck energy, wormholes, warp drives)
  4. Recent UAP commentary (extreme maneuvers in Navy pilot footage, implied G-forces, trans-medium capabilities)

1. On the Kardashev Scale and Classification of Civilizations

Dr. Kaku frequently uses the Kardashev Scale as a framework to discuss the potential advancement of civilizations based on their energy consumption. He describes:

• Type 0 (like ours, reliant on fossil fuels)
• Type I (planetary; controlling weather and planetary energy)
• Type II (stellar; harnessing the entire output of their star, e.g. via a Dyson sphere)
• Type III (galactic; commanding the energy of an entire galaxy)

2. On Type III Civilizations and Intergalactic Travel

The article posits that intergalactic travel requires mastering energies on a galactic scale—a feat of a Type III civilization. Dr. Kaku agrees, suggesting such a civilization would have colonized its galaxy and harnessed the energy of billions of stars. He explicitly links Type III civilizations with space-time manipulation technologies (wormholes, warp drives).

3. On Advanced Technology and Manipulating Space-Time

The article notes that traversing intergalactic distances necessitates manipulating the fabric of space and time, including harnessing Planck energy. Dr. Kaku explains that while Special Relativity forbids FTL locally, General Relativity allows global warping of space-time. He emphasizes that only the colossal energies of a Type III civilization could achieve such feats.

4. On UFOs/UAPs and Highly Advanced Civilizations

The article speculates that if UAPs are extraterrestrial and exhibit capabilities beyond our physics, they might originate from Type III civilizations. Dr. Kaku has spoken increasingly about UAPs, noting new Navy pilot footage and other evidence. He points out that UAP characteristics (Mach 5–20 speeds, rapid accel­eration, hundreds of Gs, transmedium travel) imply technologies far beyond ours. He cautions that these beings could be thousands or millions of years more advanced, placing them in the realm of Type III.

References:

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The Signal

A Science Fiction Short Story: In a universe filled with mysteries, the discovery of an extraterrestrial signal could change everything.

Chapter 1: The Question

Ray Faser leaned back in his chair, fingers steepled, staring at the projection of Earth’s nuclear test history—a timeline of detonations stretching from 1945 to 1996. The data pulsed like a slow, irregular heartbeat.

Two thousand nuclear blasts. Each one had sent an electromagnetic scream (EMP) into the void.

On the other side of the screen, Dr. Elias Varen, a senior astrophysicist with the SETI Institute, adjusted his glasses.
“You’re suggesting we’ve already announced ourselves.”

Ray consulted a printout and smirked.

A thermonuclear bomb blast in 1961 emitted 10 billion times more radio waves than the Arecibo message. Click to view the calculations (PDF).

“I’m saying we lit a bonfire in the ‘Dark Forest‘. And now we’re whispering ‘Hello?’ like we’re afraid of being rude.”

Varen exhaled. “The difference is intent. A nuclear EMP is noise. A structured message is a handshake.”

Ray leaned forward. “You think an advanced civilization hears a thousand atomic explosions and thinks, ‘Hmm, must be background radiation’? They’ll know what it is. And they’ll know it’s dangerous.”

Chapter 2: The UAP Variable

The Pentagon’s recent disclosures hung between them like an unspoken specter. Unidentified Anomalous Phenomena—craft defying known physics, lingering in Earth’s skies for decades.

Ray tapped the table. “If they’re already here, silence isn’t caution. It’s stupidity. We should be sending ‘We come in peace’ in every frequency we’ve got.”

Varen’s jaw tightened. “Or we’re confirming we’re a threat. Nuclear weapons, uncontrolled emissions—what if they’re waiting to see if we grow up?”

“Or waiting to see if we shoot first,” Ray countered. The Dark Forest isn’t just a theory. It’s a mirror. We’re the ones who nuked ourselves two thousand times. We’re the predators.”

Chapter 3: The Silence Gambit

A new voice cut in—Dr. Elena Papadakis, a xenopsychologist. “Assume they have detected us. Silence could be read as hostility. A predator hiding.”

Varen shook his head. “Or prudence.”

Ray laughed bitterly. “Prudence? We’re ostriches. Heads in the sand, asses in the air.”

He pulled up the latest UAP footage—a tic-tac object maneuvering at Mach 10. “They aren’t hiding. Why are we?”

Chapter 4: The Decision

The room fell quiet. The screen flickered, overlaying Earth’s radio bubble—expanding at light speed for a century, a glowing sphere of TV broadcasts, radar pings, and nuclear EMPs that might just serve as an unintended extraterrestrial signal.

Elena broke the silence. “If they’re here, they already know who we are. The question isn’t if we signal. It’s what we say.”

Ray leaned back. “How about ‘We’re not all psychopaths’?”

Varen didn’t smile. “Or we prove it.”

Outside, the stars burned cold and distant. Waiting.

Epilogue: The First Message

Three months later, the Arecibo successor array sent a single, repeating sequence toward a UAP hotspot.

Not mathematics. Not science.

Music.
Beethoven’s “Ode to Joy.”

A handshake—or a plea.

The Dark Forest listened.

——————-

Author’s note
The character of Ray Faser (and his author) have been waiting for reactivation ever since their first and last appearance in a short science-fiction story in a school newspaper in 1979.

Reference:
The history of nuclear testing began early on the morning of 16 July 1945 at a desert test site in Alamogordo, New Mexico when the United States exploded its first atomic bomb. In the five decades between that fateful day in 1945 and the opening for signature of the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty (CTBT) in 1996, over 2,000 nuclear tests were carried out all over the world.
https://www.un.org/en/observances/end-nuclear-tests-day/history

Arecibo message power vs Tsar Bomba Calculation
(Nuclear bomb sent 10 billion times more radio waves into space than Arecibo.) (PDF) Arecibo message power vs Tsar Bomba Calculation

—————————-
#fypシ゚

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The WOW! Signal, Part 2: Math Suggests Origin from Unknown Source, Moving Towards Earth

Illustration (not a real photo)

Just the facts:
PDF: Doppler Blueshift Calculations for WOW! signal (1977): download here | Discussion on the paper: Academia.edu

Preamble

In 2022, I published The WOW! signal, Part 1: Not made by humans?.
For the longest time (3 years), I wondered why I left the possibility open for “Part 2” instead of just writing “The End.”

It’s now become clear that Part 2 is essential because it includes an important detail that was missing before: EQUATIONS!

Anyone can write anything, but without mathematical equations, it’s just prose. So, here, now, for anyone to check, are the steps required to verify the movement of the Wow! signal towards Earth at 10.526 km/s in 1977.

This truly represents a significant paradigm shift. Previously, the Wow! signal was just the most plausible and only candidate for a radio transmission of non-human extraterrestrial origin in space. Now it is shown that this signal was moving and en route to Earth.

Whatever this means (We Are Not Alone?), it is remarkable that the Doppler calculations on this signal have never been published before. Did the authorities believe it would cause a panic?

Introduction

The Wow! signal has been the strongest and only serious candidate for ETi radio communication for almost half a century. New calculations support that the Wow! signal may have originated from a moving source heading for Earth, adding to its significance in the search for extraterrestrial life.

The text describes the Wow! signal, a strong radio transmission detected by the Big Ear telescope on August 15, 1977, at a frequency of 1420.4556 MHz, which corresponds to a wavelength of 21.105373 cm. The signal’s expected frequency, based on hydrogen, is 1420405751.768 Hz, translating to a wavelength of 21.106114054160 cm. The Doppler shift calculations yield a speed of approximately 10,526 m/sec (37,893 km/h), suggesting that the signal originated from an object approaching Earth. Shown here are the steps to calculate the Doppler shift speed. For context, the average speed of asteroids is around 18–20 km/s, while comets that impact Earth typically travel at about 30 km/s. In comparison, the human-made Voyager spacecraft 1 and 2 are currently traveling at speeds of 15 to 17 km/s.

Speed comparison
The WOW! signal source appears to have approached Earth at 37,893 km/h. The entry speed of the Apollo capsules into the Earth’s atmosphere was 39,705 km/h.

Image NASA: example of atmospheric entry, showing the Mars Exploration Rover aeroshell (MER).

For a better understanding, I added the illustration of the Mars Exploration Rover’s entry into the Mars atmosphere. NASA did choose this shape for its aerodynamic properties. It is possible that the Wow! signal originated from a UFO about to enter Earth’s atmosphere, as much as any other interpretation.

In conclusion, the Wow! signal appears to have originated from an unknown type of source that was approaching Earth at a speed of 10.5 km/s, as indicated by observations and these calculations. It is unknown if this is due to the source’s approach to Earth or the galaxy’s relative movement to Earth. Both scenarios are possible.

Investigations of the Wow! signal to date have not accounted for or mentioned the Doppler blueshift of the signal.

Doppler Shift Calculations for Wow! signal (1977), Page 1
Doppler Shift Calculations for Wow! signal (1977), Page 2

References:

1: Doppler Shift Calculations for Wow! signal (1977)
https://www.academia.edu/126982728/The_Wow_Signal_Doppler_Shift_Equations

2: ”The tantalizing WOW! Signal” by John Kraus, 1977, Archives of the National Radio Astronomy Observatory, https://www.nrao.edu/archives/files/original/2ec6ba346ab16e10a10d09462507beda.pdf

3. Not Made By Humans? Part 2 / The Wow! Signal: Evidence Suggests Origin from Unknown Object, Moving Towards Earth
https://www.academia.edu/126983022/Not_Made_By_Humans_Part_2_The_Wow_Signal_Evidence_Suggests_Origin_from_Unknown_Object_Moving_Towards_Earth

4. Original publication:
Not made by humans? | Part 1, February 5, 2022, Contact Project
https://contactproject.org/?p=779

5. Searching for Interstellar Communications
by Giuseppe Cocconi and Philip Morrison
https://web.archive.org/web/20110403061008/http://www.coseti.org/morris_0.htm

6. An approximation to determine the source of the WOW! Signal
Alberto Caballero
https://arxiv.org/pdf/2011.06090

7. Wow! signal, Wikipedia
https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wow!_signal

8. “Ballad of the ‘Wow!’ Signal”, Paul H. Shuch, SETI League
http://drseti.org/audio/wow.mp3

PDF: The Doppler Blueshift Calculations for WOW! signal (1977):
download here

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The Wow! Signal: A Cosmic Riddle Solved by Mathematics?

Can a mathematical equation be considered evidence that the source of the Wow! signal approached Earth (and was of extraterrestrial origin)?

This discussion is about the paper “The Wow! Signal Doppler Shift Equations“:

The Wow! Signal Doppler Shift Equations
The Wow! signal has been the strongest and only serious candidate for ETi radio communication for almost half a century. New calculations support that the Wow! signal may have originated from a moving source heading for Earth, adding to its

Mathematical equations can be considered evidence, but the context in which they are used is crucial. This is particularly evident when we examine events like the Wow! Signal, where data interpretation plays a significant role.

In the case of the Wow! signal, which was a strong narrowband radio signal detected by the Big Ear radio telescope in 1977, considering a mathematical equation as evidence requires careful consideration. It is important to consider the context and underlying assumptions.

Context of the Wow! Signal

Observational Nature: The Wow! signal was a one-time event that has not been observed again since its detection. This raises questions about reproducibility and the reliability of the interpretation of the signal.

Doppler Effect: The Doppler equation suggests blueshift (indicating that the signal source was approaching Earth). This is based on the principles of the Doppler effect. The Doppler effect describes how the frequency of emitted waves changes depending on the relative motion of the source and the observer. If a source is moving toward the observer, the waves are compressed, leading to a higher frequency (blueshift).

Mathematical Equation as Evidence

(Daguerreotype of Christian Andreas Doppler, 1803-1853)

In this instance, the mathematical equations associated with the Doppler effect can serve as supportive evidence.

This is possible if the following conditions are met:

Interpretation of the Signal: The mathematical model using the Doppler effect must be appropriately applied to the observed frequency of the Wow! signal. If the frequency of the signal is higher than what would be expected if the source were stationary, this shift can indeed be calculated. Then, using the Doppler equation, it provides a logical framework supporting the hypothesis that the source is moving towards Earth.

Consistency with Observations: For the equation to be considered evidence, it must be consistent with other data. We need to consider the characteristics of the signal (frequency, duration, etc.) and any additional analysis. For example, the lack of nearby astronomical sources that could explain the signal.

Limitations and Alternatives: While the Doppler equation suggests that the source was approaching, it is crucial to acknowledge the limitations of this interpretation. The single observation leaves room for alternative explanations. For example, it could have been interference or another cosmic phenomenon.

But we need to acknowledge that terrestrial interference or cosmic phenomena have long ago been ruled out by Dick Arnold, Bob Dixon, Jerry Ehman Ed Teiga and John Kraus.

Conclusion

The application of the Doppler equation supports the idea that the Wow! signal source was approaching Earth.

The Wow! Signal equation serves as evidence for a hypothesis, rather than serving as conclusive proof. The scientific method requires ruling out other explanations. Obtaining corroborating evidence through multiple observations or analyses is necessary before drawing definitive conclusions.

“There is no evidence that can’t be contradicted either by fact or lies.”

Erich Habich-Traut

In human discourse, where perception and persuasion play roles, that statement reflects a pragmatic reality: evidence is often subject to challenge, whether valid or not.

What type of evidence is logically or empirically unassailable?

Call for Action

Okay, we are looking for corroborating evidence for the hypothesis that Earth is being visited by extraterrestrial spacecraft, and has been for some time. We are looking for multiple observations as corroborating evidence. Does anyone have “corroborating evidence”?

(There are literally hundreds of thousands of reported unexplained sightings. Here is just a small number, two of which are mine. This explains my interest in this subject.)

Exhibit A: the Calvine UFO

What really happened in Calvine? The mystery behind the best UFO picture ever seen
In August 1990, two hikers sent photos of a strange diamond-shaped aircraft to the press – but the story never appeared. Was it a prank, a hoax, an optical illusion or something else entirely?

Exhibit B: the Puerto Rico UFO

50-Year-Old “Best Photograph Of A UFO Ever Taken” Goes Viral
The photo was taken by Sergio Loaiza in September, 1971, as he flew over Costa Rica on a mission to survey land for the construction of a hydroelectric project.

Exhibit C: the Salthill Sighting, my own sighting, 1986, Mufon #11680

THE SALTHILL UFO
THE SALTHILL UFO SIGHTING, GALWAY, 22nd February – 1st of March 1986

Exhibit D: the M6 sighting, my own sighting, 1995, Mufon #82139

My “lost” UFO sighting
Why I’m coming forward now During April 2020 I had a lot of time on my hands. It was the first Corona lockdown in Germany. I decided to sort through old 35 mm negatives in an old drawer in our basement. The drawer serves as a storage box. As I was pulling the film strips … Continue reading “My “lost” UFO sighting”

Exhibit E: the Pentagon UFO (UAP) videos

Pentagon officially releases UFO videos | CNN Politics
The Pentagon has officially released three short videos showing “unidentified aerial phenomena” that had previously been released by a private company.
Posted on

You’re warped onto the home world of friendly aliens in some unknown part of the Galaxy. How would you describe Earth’s location in the universe to them?

Pulsar Map Tattoo

I would show them my pulsar map. Astronomer and astrophysicist Frank Drake designed the map, working with fellow astronomer Carl Sagan and artist and writer Linda Salzman Sagan. The pulsar map shows the location of our sun relative to known pulsars. This map was placed on the interstellar space probes Voyager 1 & 2 in 1977.

The map is slightly inaccurate because of a rounding error on one pulsar, but its better than nothing.

Whether or not to have a tattoo of it is debatable. A dog tag may be easier to carry.

The Magic About Pulsars
Discovered in 1967 by Northern Irish astrophysicist Jocelyn Bell Burnell, pulsars were described by Antony Hewish to be the remains of collapsed suns.

For reasons not entirely understood they emit pulses of radio waves (and like lighthouses sometimes visible light) with the accuracy of atomic clocks, staying active for billions of years. It has something to do with magnetic fields.

Frank Drake drew the pulsar map using 14 pulsars that were known in the early 1970’s. Today we know of many more pulsars but they are not as powerful and bright. Frank Drake’s original pencil-drawn pulsar map today lives in an old tomato box at home.

Frank Drake hand drawn original pulsar map that went to Outer Space.

Each pulsar is connected to the sun by a solid line. The length of the line represents the pulsar’s approximate relative distance from the sun.
Etched along each of the pulsar lines are vertical and horizontal dashes that represent a binary number that can be converted into a decimal.
When multiplied by a known measure of time, that number reveals the frequency of the pulsar—how fast it spins and flashes.

Successfully decoding the map would unambiguously pinpoint the sun’s position and the time frame of the spacecraft’s launch.

This is an article by the “Contact Project”.

We can be found on https://contactproject.org.

The Contact Project is also on reddit: https://reddit.com/r/contactproject

Reference:
How to Read a Pulsar Map
https://www.pbs.org/the-farthest/science/pulsar-map/

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